History of animation

Animation refers to the creation of a sequence of imagesâ€"drawn, painted, or produced by other artistic methodsâ€"that change over time to portray the illusion of motion. Before the invention of film, humans depicted motion in static art as far back as the Paleolithic period. In the 1st century, several devices successfully depicted motion in animated images.

Early approaches to motion in art

Evidence of artistic interest in depicting figures in motion can be seen in art as early as Paleolithic cave paintings. Animals in such paintings were often depicted with multiple sets of legs in superimposed positions. Because the paintings are prehistoric, alternative interpretations are possible, such as the artist simply deciding to change a leg's position and having no means of erasing, but it is very likely that these were early attempts to convey motion.

Another example is a 5,200-year old pottery bowl discovered in Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran. The bowl has five images painted around it that show phases of a goat leaping up to nip at a tree.

An Egyptian mural approximately 4000 years old, found in the tomb of Khnumhotep at the Beni Hassan cemetery, features a very long series of images that apparently depict the sequence of events in a wrestling match.

Ancient Chinese records contain several mentions of devices, including one made by the inventor Ding Huan, that were said to "give an impression of movement" to a series of human or animal figures on them, but these accounts are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of the figures through space.

Seven drawings by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1510) extending over two folios in the Windsor Collection, Anatomical Studies of the Muscles of the Neck, Shoulder, Chest, and Arm, have detailed renderings of the upper body and less-detailed facial features. The sequence shows multiple angles of the figure as it rotates and the arm extends. Because the drawings show only small changes from one image to the next, together they imply the movement of a single figure.

Although some of these early examples may seem similar to a series of animation drawings, the contemporary lack of any means to show them in motion and their extremely low frame rate causes them to fall short of being true animation. Nonetheless, the practice of illustrating movement over time by creating a series of images arranged in chronological order provided a foundation for the development of the art.

Animation before film

Numerous devices that successfully displayed animated images were introduced well before the advent of the motion picture. These devices were used to entertain, amaze, and sometimes even frighten people. The majority of these devices didn't project their images, and accordingly could only be viewed by a single person at any one time. For this reason they were considered toys rather than devices for a large scale entertainment industry like later animation. Many of these devices are still built by and for film students learning the basic principles of animation.

The magic lantern (c. 1650)

The magic lantern is an early predecessor of the modern day projector. It consisted of a translucent oil painting, a simple lens and a candle or oil lamp. In a darkened room, the image would appear projected onto an adjacent flat surface. It was often used to project demonic, frightening images in a phantasmagoria that convinced people they were witnessing the supernatural. Some slides for the lanterns contained moving parts, which makes the magic lantern the earliest known example of projected animation. The origin of the magic lantern is debated, but in the 15th century the Venetian inventor Giovanni Fontana published an illustration of a device that projected the image of a demon in his Liber Instrumentorum. The earliest known actual magic lanterns are usually credited to Christiaan Huygens or Athanasius Kircher.

Thaumatrope (1824)

A thaumatrope is a simple toy that was popular in the 19th century. It is a small disk with different pictures on each side, such as a bird and a cage, and is attached to two pieces of string. When the strings are twirled quickly between the fingers, the pictures appear to combine into a single image. This demonstrates the persistence of vision, the fact that the perception of an object by the eyes and brain continues for a small fraction of a second after the view is blocked or the object is removed. The invention of the device is often credited to Sir John Herschel, but John Ayrton Paris popularized it in 1824 when he demonstrated it to the Royal College of Physicians.

Phenakistoscope (1831)

The phenakistoscope was an early animation device. It was invented in 1831, simultaneously by the Belgian Joseph Plateau and the Austrian Simon von Stampfer. It consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radii evenly spaced around the center of the disk. Slots are cut out of the disk on the same radii as the drawings, but at a different distance from the center. The device would be placed in front of a mirror and spun. As the phenakistoscope spins, a viewer looks through the slots at the reflection of the drawings, are momentarily visible when a slot passes by the viewer's eye. This created the illusion of animation.

Zoetrope (1834)

The zoetrope concept was suggested in 1834 by William George Horner, and from the 1860s marketed as the zoetrope. It operates on the same principle as the phenakistoscope. It was a cylindrical spinning device with several frames of animation printed on a paper strip placed around the interior circumference. The observer looks through vertical slits around the sides to view the moving images on the opposite side as the cylinder spins. As it spins, the material between the viewing slits moves in the opposite direction of the images on the other side and in doing so serves as a rudimentary shutter. The zoetrope had several advantages over the basic phenakistoscope. It did not require the use of a mirror to view the illusion, and because of its cylindrical shape it could be viewed by several people at once.

In ancient China, people used a device that one 20th century historian categorized as "a variety of zoetrope." It had a series of translucent paper or mica panels and was operated by being hung over a lamp so that vanes at the top would cause it to rotate as heated air rose from the lamp. It has been claimed that this rotation, if it reached the ideal speed, caused the same illusion of animation as the later zoetrope, but because there was no shutter (the slits in a zoetrope) or other provision for intermittence, the effect was in fact simply a series of horizontally drifting figures, with no true animation.

Flip book (1868)

John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph. A flip book is a small book with relatively springy pages, each having one in a series of animation images located near its unbound edge. The user bends all of the pages back, normally with the thumb, then by a gradual motion of the hand allows them to spring free one at a time. As with the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope, the illusion of motion is created by the apparent sudden replacement of each image by the next in the series, but unlike those other inventions no view-interrupting shutter or assembly of mirrors is required and no viewing device other than the user's hand is absolutely necessary. Early film animators cited flip books as their inspiration more often than the earlier devices, which did not reach as wide an audience.

The older devices by their nature severely limit the number of images that can be included in a sequence without making the device very large or the images impractically small. The book format still imposes a physical limit, but many dozens of images of ample size can easily be accommodated. Inventors stretched even that limit with the mutoscope, patented in 1894 and sometimes still found in amusement arcades. It consists of a large circularly-bound flip book in a housing, with a viewing lens and a crank handle that drives a mechanism that slowly rotates the assembly of images past a catch, causing the pages to flip. A helical bound version, patented but not commercialized, made it theoretically possible for a mutoscope of reasonable size to match the running time of an entire reel of film.

Praxinoscope (1877)

The first known animated projection on a screen was created in France by Charles-Ã‰mile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the ThÃ©Ã¢tre Optique in December 1888. On 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the MusÃ©e GrÃ©vin in Paris. This film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, but drawn directly onto the transparent strip. In 1900, more than 500,000 people attended these screenings.

Traditional animation

The first film recorded on standard picture film that included animated sequences was the 1900 Enchanted Drawing, which was followed by the first entirely animated film, the 1906 Humorous Phases of Funny Faces by J. Stuart Blacktonâ€"who is, because of that, considered the father of American animation.

In Europe, the French artist, Ã‰mile Cohl, created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methodsâ€"the 1908 Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action where the animatorâ€™s hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look.

The more detailed hand-drawn animations, requiring a team of animators drawing each frame manually with detailed backgrounds and characters, were those directed by Winsor McCay, a successful newspaper cartoonist, including the 1911 Little Nemo, the 1914 Gertie the Dinosaur, and the 1918 The Sinking of the Lusitania.

During the 1910s, the production of animated short films, typically referred to as "cartoons", became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters. The most successful producer at the time was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.

The silent era

Charles-Ã‰mile Reynaud's ThÃ©Ã¢tre Optique is the earliest known example of projected animation. It predates even photographic motion picture devices such as Thomas Edison's 1893 invention, the Kinetoscope, and the LumiÃ¨re brothers' 1894 invention, the cinematograph. Reynaud exhibited three of his animations on October 28, 1892 at MusÃ©e GrÃ©vin in Paris, France. The only surviving example of these three is Pauvre Pierrot, which was 500 frames long.

After the cinematograph popularized the motion picture, producers began to explore the endless possibilities of animation in greater depth. A short stop-motion animation was produced in 1908 by Albert E. Smith and J. Stuart Blackton called The Humpty Dumpty Circus. Stop motion is a technique in which real objects are moved around in the time between their images being recorded, so that when the images are viewed at a normal frame rate the objects appear to move by some invisible force. It directly descends from various early trick film techniques that created the illusion of impossible actions.

A few other films that featured stop motion technique were released afterward, but the first to receive wide scale appreciation was Blackton's Haunted Mansion, which baffled viewers and inspired much further development. In 1906, Blackton also made the first drawn work of animation on standard film, Humorous Phases of Funny Faces. It features faces that are drawn on a chalkboard and then suddenly move autonomously.

Fantasmagorie, by the French director Ã‰mile Cohl (also called Ã‰mile Courtet), is also noteworthy. It was screened for the first time on August 17, 1908 at ThÃ©Ã¢tre du Gymnase in Paris. Cohl later went to Fort Lee, New Jersey near New York City in 1912, where he worked for French studio Ã‰clair and spread its animation technique to the US.

Influenced by Cohl, the author of the first puppet-animated film (i.e., The Beautiful Lukanida (1912)), Russian-born (ethnically Polish) director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich, started to create stop motion films using dead insects with wire limbs and later, in France, with complex and really expressive puppets. In 1911, he created The Cameraman's Revenge, a complex tale of treason,and violence between several different insects. It is a pioneer work of puppet animation, and the oldest animated film of such dramatic complexity, with characters filled with motivation, desire and feelings. In 1914, American cartoonist Winsor McCay released Gertie the Dinosaur, an early example of character development in drawn animation. The film was made for McCay's vaudeville act and as it played McCay would speak to Gertie who would respond with a series of gestures. There was a scene at the end of the film where McCay walked behind the projection screen and a view of him appears on the screen showing him getting on the cartoon dinosaur's back and riding out of frame. This scene made Gertie the Dinosaur the first film to combine live action footage with hand drawn animation. McCay hand-drew almost every one of the 10,000 drawings he used for the film.

Also in 1914, John Bray opened John Bray Studios, which revolutionized the way animation was created. Earl Hurd, one of Bray's employees patented the cel technique. This involved animating moving objects on transparent celluloid sheets. Animators photographed the sheets over a stationary background image to generate the sequence of images. This, as well as Bray's innovative use of the assembly line method, allowed John Bray Studios to create Colonel Heeza Liar, the first animated series.

In 1915, Max and Dave Fleischer invented rotoscoping, the process of using film as a reference point for animation and their studios went on to later release such animated classics as Ko-Ko the Clown, Betty Boop, Popeye the Sailor Man, and Superman. In 1918 McCay released The Sinking of the Lusitania, a wartime propaganda film. McCay did use some of the newer animation techniques, such as cels over paintingsâ€"but because he did all of his animation by himself, the project wasn't actually released until just shortly before the end of the war. At this point the larger scale animation studios were becoming the industrial norm and artists such as McCay faded from the public eye.

The first known animated feature film was by Pinto Colvig, made in 1915 called Creation. Unfortunately, this film may have been lost forever and only a few frames remain. Colvig is best known as the voice of Disney's Goofy, and also designed the Disney Logo. The second known animated feature film was El ApÃ³stol, made in 1917 by Quirino Cristiani from Argentina. He also directed two other animated feature films, including 1931's PeludÃ³polis, the first feature length animation to use synchronized sound. None of these, however, survive.

In 1920, Otto Messmer of Pat Sullivan Studios created Felix the Cat. Pat Sullivan, the studio head took all of the credit for Felix, a common practice in the early days of studio animation. Felix the Cat was distributed by Paramount Studios, and it attracted a large audience. Felix was the first cartoon to be merchandised. He soon became a household name.

In Germany, during the 1920s the abstract animation was invented by Walter Ruttman, Hans Richter, and Oskar Fischinger, however, the Nazis censorship against so-called "degenerate art" prevented the abstract animation from developing after 1933.

The earliest surviving animated feature film is the 1926 silhouette-animated Adventures of Prince Achmed, which used colour-tinted film. It was directed by German Lotte Reiniger and French/Hungarian Berthold Bartosch.

Walt Disney & Warner Bros.

In 1923, a studio called Laugh-O-Grams went bankrupt and its owner, Walt Disney, opened a new studio in Los Angeles. Disney's first project was the Alice Comedies series, which featured a live action girl interacting with numerous cartoon characters. Disney's first notable breakthrough was 1928's Steamboat Willie, the third of the Mickey Mouse series. It was the first cartoon that included a fully post-produced soundtrack, featuring voice and sound effects printed on the film itself ("sound-on-film"). The short film showed an anthropomorphic mouse named Mickey neglecting his work on a steamboat to instead make music using the animals aboard the boat.

In 1930, Warner Brothers Cartoons were founded. While Disney's studio was known for its releases being strictly controlled by Walt Disney himself, Warner brothers allowed its animators more freedom, which allowed for their animators to develop more recognizable personal styles.

The first animation to use the full, three-color Technicolor method was Flowers and Trees, made in 1932 by Disney Studios, which won an Academy Award for the work. Color animation soon became the industry standard, and in 1934, Warner Brothers released Honeymoon Hotel of the Merrie Melodies series, their first color films. Meanwhile, Disney had realized that the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories; he developed an innovation called a "story department" where storyboard artists separate from the animators would focus on story development alone, which proved its worth when the Disney studio released in 1933 the first-ever animated short to feature well-developed characters, Three Little Pigs. In 1935, Tex Avery released his first film with Warner Brothers. Avery's style was notably fast paced, violent, and satirical, with a slapstick sensibility.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs

Many consider Walt Disney's 1937 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs the first animated feature film, though at least seven films were released earlier. However, Disney's film was the first one completely made using hand-drawn animation. The previous seven films, of which only four survive, were made using cutout, silhouette or stop motion, except for oneâ€"also made by Disney seven months prior to Snow White's releaseâ€"Academy Award Review of Walt Disney Cartoons. This was an anthology film to promote the upcoming release of Snow White. However, many do not consider this a genuine feature film because it is a package film. In addition, at approximately 41 minutes, the film does not seem to fulfill today's expectations for a feature film. However, the official BFI, AMPAS and AFI definitions of a feature film require that it be over 40 minutes long, which, in theory, should make it the first animated feature film using traditional animation.

But as Snow White was also the first one to become successful and well-known within the English-speaking world, people tend to disregard the seven films. Following Snow White's release, Disney began to focus much of its productive force on feature length films. Though Disney did continue to produce shorts throughout the century, Warner Brothers continued to focus on shorts.

The television era

Color television was introduced to the US Market in 1951. In 1958, Hanna-Barbera released Huckleberry Hound, the first half-hour television program to feature only animation. Terrytoons released Tom Terrific the same year. In 1960, Hanna-Barbera released another monumental animated television show, The Flintstones, which was the first animated series on prime time television. Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theatres.

Animation Techniques

Innumerable approaches to creating animation have arisen throughout the years. Here is a brief account of some of the non traditional techniques commonly incorporated.

Stop motion

This process is used for many productions, for example, the most common types of puppets are clay puppets, as used in The California Raisins and Wallace and Gromit, and figures made of various rubbers, cloths and plastic resins, such as The Nightmare Before Christmas and James and the Giant Peach. Sometimes even objects are used, such as with the films of Jan Å vankmajer.

Stop motion animation was also commonly used for special effects work in many live-action films, such as the 1933 version of King Kong and The 7th Voyage of Sinbad.

CGI animation

Computer-generated imagery (CGI) revolutionized animation. The first fully computer-animated feature film was Pixar's Toy Story (1995). The process of CGI animation is still very tedious and similar in that sense to traditional animation, and it still adheres to many of the same principles.

A principal difference of CGI animation compared to traditional animation is that drawing is replaced by 3D modeling, almost like a virtual version of stop-motion. A form of animation that combines the two and uses 2D computer drawing can be considered computer aided animation.

Most CGI created films are based on animal characters, monsters, machines, or cartoon-like humans. Animation studios are now trying to develop ways to create realistic-looking humans. Films that have attempted this include Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within in 2001, Final Fantasy: Advent Children in 2005, The Polar Express in 2004, Beowulf in 2007 and Resident Evil: Degeneration in 2009. However, due to the complexity of human body functions, emotions and interactions, this method of animation is rarely used. The more realistic a CG character becomes, the more difficult it is to create the nuances and details of a living person, and the greater the likelihood of the character falling into the uncanny valley. The creation of hair and clothing that move convincingly with the animated human character is another area of difficulty. The Incredibles and Up both have humans as protagonists, while films like Avatar combine animation with live action to create humanoid creatures.

Cel-shading is a type of non-photorealistic rendering intended to make computer graphics appear hand-drawn. It is often used to mimic the style of a comic book or cartoon. It is a somewhat recent addition to computer graphics, most commonly turning up in console video games. Though the end result of cel-shading has a very simplistic feel like that of hand-drawn animation, the process is complex. The name comes from the clear sheets of acetate (originally, celluloid), called cels, that are painted on for use in traditional 2D animation. It may be considered a "2.5D" form of animation. True real-time cel-shading was first introduced in 2000 by Sega's Jet Set Radio for their Dreamcast console. Besides video games, a number of anime have also used this style of animation, such as Freedom Project in 2006.

Machinima is the use of real-time 3D computer graphics rendering engines to create a cinematic production. Most often, video games are used to generate the computer animation. Machinima-based artists, sometimes called machinimists or machinimators, are often fan laborers, by virtue of their re-use of copyrighted materials.

Firsts in animation

Asia

History of Chinese animation

1922: first animation in a commercial Shuzhendong Chinese Typewriter
1926: first animation to showcase technology Uproar in the Studio and acknowledge Wan Laiming and Wan Guchan as pioneers.
1935: The Camel's Dance - first chinese animation with sound.
1941: Princess Iron Fan
1980: Three Monks

History of Indian animation

1974: Ek Anek Aur Ekta
1978: The Hunt
1986: Ghayab Aaya
1992: Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama

History of Iranian animation

Iran's animation owes largely to the animator Noureddin Zarrinkelk. Zarrinkelk was instrumental in founding the Institute for Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults (IIDCYA) in Tehran in collaboration with the late father of Iranian graphics Morteza Momayez and other fellow artists like Farshid Mesghali, Ali Akbar Sadeghi, and Arapik Baghdasarian.

Circa 3000 BCE: Zoopraxiscope-style animated pottery is produced. This is considered one of the oldest forms of animation in the world.
1970: Duty, First
1971: A Playground for Baboush
1971: Philipo and a Train from Hong Kong
1971: Seven Cities
1972: Shower of Flowers
1973: Association Of Ideas
1973: I Am He Whoâ€¦
1974: Atal-Matal
1974: The Castle
1975: The Mad, Mad, Mad World
1975: The Sun King

History of Japanese animation (Anime)

Circa 1915: Discovered in Kyoto in 2005, the earliest known Japanese animated film is KatsudÅ Shashin (Moving Picture), which depicts a boy wearing a sailor uniform performing a salute. The undated film is considered among the earliest examples of Japanese animation. The discoverer speculates that it is from as early as 1907. It is composed of 50 frames assembled on 35mm Celluloid with paste.
1917: Imokawa Mukuzo Genkanban no Maki
1917: Namakura Gatana
1918: Urashima TarÅ
1921: Kiatsu to Mizuage Ponpu
1922: Shokubutsu Seiri: Seishoku no Maki
1924: Usagi to Kame
1945: Momotaro's Divine Sea Warriors
1958: The Tale of the White Serpent
1963: Astro Boy
1968: Hols: Prince of the Sun
1970: Ashita no Joe
1974: Space Battleship Yamato
1979: Mobile Suit Gundam
1979: The Castle of Cagliostro
1984: NausicaÃ¤ of the Valley of the Wind
1984: Lensman: Secret of The Lens
1987: Wicked City
1988: My Neighbor Totoro
1988: Grave of the Fireflies
1988: Akira
1993: Ninja Scroll
1995: Neon Genesis Evangelion
1995: Ghost in the Shell
1997: Princess Mononoke
2000: Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust
2001: Spirited Away
2001: Millennium Actress
2004: Howl's Moving Castle
2006: Paprika
2008: Ponyo
2013: The Wind Rises
2014: The Tale of the Princess Kaguya

Europe

History of British animation

1899: Arthur Melbourne-Cooper's "Matches Appeal"
1954: Animal Farm
1978: Watership Down
1982: Plague Dogs
1982: SuperTed
1990: The Dreamstone
1999: Watership Down

History of Czech animation

The roots of Czech puppet animation began in the mid-1940s when puppet theater operators, Eduard Hofman and JiÅ™Ã Trnka founded the Poetic animation school, BratÅ™Ã v Triku. Since that time animation has expanded and flourished.

1945: Dedek Zasadil repu ("My grandfather planted a beet")
1946: ZvÃrÃ¡tka to petrovstÃ ("Animals and bandits")
1946: Perak SS ("The jumper and the men of the SS")
1946: Darek ("The Gift")
1947: Å palÃÄek ("The Czech Year")
1949: RomÃ¡n s basou ("Story of a bass")
1949: Certuv mlÃ½n ("The Devil's Mill")
1949: Arie prerie ("Song of the Prairie")
1949: Cisaruv Slavik ("The Emperor's Nightingale")

History of Estonian animation

Estonian animation began in the 1930s and has carried on into the modern day.

1931 - The Adventures of Juku the Dog, first Estonian animated short film
1950s - founding of puppet animation division of Tallinnfilm by Elbert Tuganov
1970s - founding of drawn animation division, Joonisfilm, by Rein Raamat

History of French animation

1908-1925, The work of animation pioneer Ã‰mile Cohl produces a number of firsts in animation and animation techniques.
- 1908: The first animated cartoon
- 1909: First use of morphing
- 1910: First use of puppet animation and first color-animated cartoon
- 1911: First use of pixilation
- 1916: La journÃ©e de Flambeau becomes the first animated series. (Also known as Flambeau, chien perdu)

History of Hungarian animation

1914: IstvÃ¡n KatÃ³ Kiszly first becomes involved in cut-out promotional animations for use during newsreels.
1932: Gyula MacskÃ¡ssy and JÃ¡nos HalÃ¡sz establish Hungary's first animation studio, Coloriton.
1930-1940: Hungarian animators such as Jean Image, George Pal, and John Halas emigrate from Hungary due to political instability and settle abroad.
1948: All film-making is nationalized by the Hungarian Communist Party under Magyar SzinkronfilmgyÃ¡rtÃ³ VÃ¡llalat (later rechristened as PannÃ³nia Film StÃºdiÃ³).
1962: Gyula MacskÃ¡ssy and GyÃ¶rgy VÃ¡rnai create Hungary's first animated serial, the Peti series.
1981: JÃ¡nos Kass' Dilemma becomes the first fully digital animated film
1990 - Communism ends, and with it state support for PannÃ³nia Film StÃºdiÃ³. Independent studios like Varga Studio and Digic Pictures emerge.

History of Italian animation

1977: The animated Italian classic, Allegro non troppo, is both a parody of and homage to Disney's Fantasia. This is director Bruno Bozzetto's most ambitious work and his only feature-length animation, although he also directed several notable shorter works including West and Soda, an animated spaghetti western.

History of Russian animation

1910-1913: Ladislas Starevich creates puppet animations
1935: First animated feature film in the USSR, The New Gulliver
1935: Soyuzmultfilm Studio is created, and eventually funds thousands of short animated films, mostly for kids
late 1930s to 1950s: enforced Socialist Realism in cartoons (with a few exceptions).
1953: Puppet animation division re-founded at Soyuzmultfilm (it was closed shortly after The New Gulliver was released)
1962: Fyodor Khitruk's short film History of a Crime introduces new aesthetic to Soviet animation
1969: First episode of popular series Nu, Pogodi!
1972: First Cheburashka short is made
1979: Yuriy Norshteyn releases Tale of Tales, since then voted twice by a large panel of international critics as the best animated film ever made.
1989: Studio Pilot, the first private animation studio in the USSR, is founded
1990s: government subsidies shrink dramatically, while the number of studios grow.
2000s (decade): some high-profile animated features are made.